DELHI AS DESCRIBED IN THE MURAQQA‘-E-DEHLI

   Ruba’i—

 “Friends, in this Gambling house [World] there are very few rinds,

[however] they do not associate with the imposters.

[Although] the rinds are few, their specific number is not known,

[but] they laugh at this attraction towards the materialistic things of this world.”   

The Muraqqa‘-e-Dehli or an Album of Delhi was written by Dargah Quli Khan during the 18th century CE. The writer visited Delhi with Nizam-ul-Mulk, the autonomous Mughal governor of the Deccan during this time who laid the foundation of the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizam was invited by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah (1720-1748 CE) to his court at Shahjahanabad in Delhi. Therefore, Dargah Quli Khan too formed a part of Nizam’s entourage. He stayed at the Mughal imperial capital for nearly about three years i.e., from 1739-41. During his stay, he wrote a diary in ornate Persian, describing about the general condition of the city during and after the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739. Delhi in his work refers to Shahjahanabad, the walled city and the old cities such as Purana Qila, Mehrauli and their neighborhoods. The royal court was in decadence while the populace seemed to have not much affected by the plight of the court. While Muhammad Shah after the Persian invasion became reticent in his demeanour which reflected in the manner he dispensed his royal duties, the cultural life of the city, on the other hand, was blossoming. People indulged themselves on revelries and all sorts of perversities. The relevance of this work is of high significance from the fact that it was not commissioned by an Emperor or a noble. So, the writer was not under the pressure to eulogize and please his influential patron in any way so as to gain some rewards in his career or monetary benefits. There was no need for glossing over. He enjoyed much freedom in capturing the details the way he observed them. Consequently, his album is full of interesting observations of the city at the time. The acumen for writing was evident in his grandson, Khandan Quli Khan II as well. The latter was appointed as Waqa’-i-Nigar or diary writer by Bahadur Shah I (1707-12 CE), the Mughal Emperor who came into power after the death of his royal father, Aurangzeb.    

All year round, there were many occasions of celebrations such as the urs, mehfil-e-Qawwali or Sama, mela, basant, marsiya khwani, etc. The urs of prominent sufi saints—Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Nizamuddin Aulia, and Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehli, to name a few, were observed in order to commemorate the birth or death of saints. On the eve of an urs, at the shrines of the sufi saints, the sufis and people of different faiths gathered together, attending the music ensembles to attain communion with the Supreme Being. Ordinary people assembled here and listened to qawwals sometimes only for personal pleasure. Such qawwali concerts were called the mehfil-e-Qawwali. Just as the ceremonies of the urs of sufi saints integrated the mehfil-e-Qawwali, the later attracted the mela concept. Since these shrines were located far from the cities, therefore, those who attended these festivities carried their beddings and tents along to stay there as long as these celebrations lasted. The gatherings of people drew shopkeepers and gamekeepers too who earned some profits by selling their products. While in Marsiya Khwani or Marsiya recitation, the Marsiya Khwans composed and recited Marsiyas to arouse extreme sorrow and grief among the mourners for the family of the Karbala martyrs which began on the first day of the month of Muharram. The tradition came from Iran to India during the rule of Humayun after he returned India and reoccupied his lost territory from the Sur dynasty. The Persian nobles at the court of the Mughals too aided in its transmission to the empire. Delhi, Lucknow, Bhopal, Hyderabad emerges as significant centres where Marsiya Khwans flourished. Such festivities were excellent opportunities for singers, dancers and musicians to showcase their talents. Qawwals singing qawwalis were a popular category of singers during this period in Delhi. In today’s time also, qawwali is a popular devotional singing in the Indian subcontinent.

Besides spiritual singers, there was a class of artists who performed solely for entertainment and were called Arbab-e-Tarb and included musicians, dancers, singers, their accompanyists, mimics, etc. There were khayal and Kabbit singers. There were naqqals who were mimics, either employed by the Mughal imperial court or they worked independently. There were some eminent women artists as well during this period. The women dancers were young, beautiful and talented and only resourceful people could afford to be their patrons. They received lavish gifts from their respective patrons. Thus, these dancers were able to maintain a very high standard of living and were popular only among the elites. Dargah Quli Khan made references to some of the artists of the time and the kind of privileges they enjoyed due to their association with the imperial court or high-ranking nobles in the following words:

[Behnai] is a well-known dancer and is the head of the other dancing girls. She has mace bearers as servants. Her relations with the nobles is one on equal footing and she writes letters of introduction, which they welcome. Earlier, she was on very familiar terms with I’timad-ud-Daula who visited her often at her residence. He once brought for her a gift of a flagon and goblets studded with jewels, and worth seventy thousand rupees. The extent of her wealth can be imagined.   

[Khushali Ram Jani] is in the service of I’timad-ud-Daula and a lot of dignity and grandeur are associated with her bearing. Once, she was dancing in a mehfil attended by high personages to whom she gave no particular importance. Content in her demonstration, she neither addressed nor attended anyone.

[Nur Bai] is a Domni of Dehli. [Even] the nobles [have to] make a request to visit her residence while a few [nobles] go to her house. She lives in a grandiose house, full of curios usually associated with the houses of the nobles of high rank. The pageantry which moves with her when she goes out, comprises all the paraphernalia of a procession of an Amir, like beadle and herald. Her mode of conveyance is usually an elephant. The invitees have to send a large sum of money to have her acceptance [of their invitation] and on her arrival, has to be showered with jewels as a token of runumai. A similar custom has to be observed at the time of her departure. Whosoever gets enamoured [of her] gets sucked into the whirlpool of her demands and brings ruin to his house. A section of the people have become paupers after their association with her. The pleasure of her company can be had as long as one is in the possession of riches to bestow on her.

[Saras Roop] She has become popular and is highly admired for her dancing and singing. She elicits praise from both the elites and the sufis. […] The pleasure of her company can be attained only after prior permission, sought with attractive gifts.   

Speaking of Nur Bai, perhaps she was the most popular courtesan in the city who was renowned for her dancing skill. She often performed at the imperial court of the Mughal Emperor and also in the houses of affluent umara (nobles) after receiving hefty money and jewels as gifts. The offering of such expensive gifts and money enabled her to maintain a lifestyle befitting an aristocrat. Nadir Shah was so besotted with her beauty and her performance that he attempted to take her to Persia, but she artfully persuaded the Persian Shah to leave Delhi without her.   

Some of the highly skilled dancers and musicians such as Nur Bai, Kamal Bai, Chak Mak, Ne‘mat Khan, Bole Khan Kalawant, Taqi, Panna, Tanu and Chamani were directly employed by the Mughal court where they performed exclusively for the Mughal Emperor. The emperor himself was a good musician. He trained the women singers and dancers of the court in new notations, especially the variety of Khayyals he innovated. However, after the invasion of Nadir Shah, the situation was changed at the imperial court, and they had to look for patronage elsewhere. Of these artists, Dargah Quli Khan writes in his Muraqqa: 

‘At one point her [Kamal Bai] retinue adorned the mehfils at the Imperial Court. However, since the invasion of Nadir Shah, His Majesty Din Panah abstains himself from the musical soirees and has suspended them at the court. Consequently, her company which had previously been forbidden, is now accessible.’   

‘Earlier she [Panna] was the primary dancer of the Imperial Court. Her alluring beauty and graceful disposition provided immense pleasure to the Badshah (Muhammad Shah Rangeela) who showered her with generous favours. Now she organises the musical gatherings for her admirers and delights her fans.’

Their beauty and talent enamoured many noblemen of the court. One such amir (noble) was Mian Muhammad Mah who was smitten with Tanu and circulated stories of his love and intimacies with the dancer. Mian Muhammad Mah who enjoyed uninhibited frivolities was known to organize grand mehfils at his abode which attracted a large number of people. Nauras Kunwar, a singer was his beloved.    

Nevertheless, music remained the most loved form of entertainment even after the invasion of Delhi and though it lost its patronage at the imperial court, it continued to receive a massive patronage in the establishments of the nobility, in the living sufis’ khanqahs, in the dwellings of musicians, singers and dancers and on the streets, in common places, and during festivities, mehfils, melas, etc. It seemed music became a channel for the people of Delhi to forget the barbaric invasion of 1739, enabling them to renew their battered spirits. And since music and dance were patronized heavily by the elite class, therefore, professional musicians, singers and dancers flourished in Delhi. Their participation was indispensable in social or quasi-religious functions.          

Apart from women as courtesans, dancers, musicians and singers, there were catamites too who were famous singers and dancers and there were nobles who indulged themselves in pederasty. Some of them are mentioned in the Muraqqa:

Sultana is a twelve-year-old, olive complexioned catamite, whose coquetry reflects itself in his dancing. Having gained some knowledge of music he bewitches the people. Considering his age, not much can be expected from him, still, he is a bud who compares with flowers [i.e. experts in this field]

Durgahi, a rattler was an accompanist with Sultana and has got over the phase of Ganymede. […] Although his outer appearance belied the fact that he could dance, he was nevertheless made to go through the exercise. He amazed everyone with his performance, and they stared wide-eyed at his intricate foot work.    

[Allah Bande] is a young catamite with an attractive body. When he comes out dressed at night, he looks very charming. His father was one of the famous qawwals of Dehli. Allah Bande’s renderings in khayyal are done with full concentration. Many people are particularly favourable towards him, and they consummate their desires with his co-operation.

Raji is another dark-complexioned Ganymede whose thin voice is incomparable even with the [sound of the] thinnest cord of a musical instrument. Those unaware find it difficult to distinguish between the sound of his voice and that of the instrument.

Such attractive young boys were really popular among noblemen who were fond of sodomy. Azam Khan, son of Fidwi Khan and the nephew of Mir Bakshi (Head of the military department) of Emperor Muhammad Shah, was an important amir who spent his money derived from his jagirs (land assignments to Mughal officials called jagirdars in lieu of some obligations) on the maintenance of his big entourage of young and beautiful girls and lads brought from different regions of the empire. Whenever he received any information regarding the availability of them, he would try to buy them and make them his attendants. Yet another noble named Mirza Munnu, who was the governor of Ajmer and son of Qamatuddin Khan, the wazir (Prime Minister) of Muhammad Shah, took pleasure in providing guidance to novices in the art of sodomy. Frequently he threw parties, full of young lads for older men to enjoy. Dargah Quli Khan compares his house with the palace of Shaddad who was an immoral king and created Bagh-e-Iram, the earthly paradise where gorgeous women were enjoyed by men. Of such mehfils, the writer remarks, ‘These mehfils are occasions where the beauty and other attributes of these people are judged and are not considered worthy unless they pass the test here. The molten gold or silver [novice lads and lasses] have to go through the furnace of his [Azam Khan] assemblies before they become standardised.’        

The Muraqqa also highlights some innovative ways through which women in Delhi in those days adorned themselves. For instance, Ad Begum who was the most popular women in Delhi decorated her legs with stunning naqqashi in the style of pyjamas and in place of poinche or cuffs of the pyjamas, she replicated the flower and petal patterns of the Kam Khab cloth of Rûm (a city in Turkey) in ink. She attended the mehfils of the umara (nobles) without actually wearing a pair of pyjamas. Interestingly, this trick of hers goes unnoticed by all the people assembled there and to those it was revealed, they were exceedingly admiring for this aesthetic and unusual style.

To conclude, the Muraqqa of Dargah Quli Khan is certainly full of fascinating details with respect to social life of Delhi during the time he visited the imperial city. But one needs to bear in mind that he himself was a man of specific taste, suited to lavish and extravagant aristocratic lifestyle. No doubt, corruption and debauchery characterized the social habits of nobility during the period of the Later Mughals. But it would be misleading to infer from the information we get in the writing of Dargah Quli Khan that such vices were widespread, and that common people could actually afford to organize and attend such expensive mehfils and indulge in frequent revelries especially after the devastation of the city caused by the invasion of Nadir Shah. Zahiruddin Malik in The Reign of Muhammad Shah asserts that Dargah Quli Khan ‘visited places and attended functions in Delhi which had a special attraction for him. He hardly ever cared to see centres of piety and learning in order to familiarize himself with the aspirations and anxieties of the masses and to detect the sense of disharmony and doubt that attended upon the change of the old order.’ Thus, the kind of Delhi sketched in Dargah Quli Khan’s work is indeed flamboyant but certainly it doesn’t reflect the whole picture of the time and also it is not a representative of the whole aristocratic society during the reign of Muhammad Shah. Though Delhi during this period was no longer a strong centralized political region and the Mughal court was plagued by intrigues and internal dissension and strife, yet there were umara who were genuinely dedicated to the advancement of art and literature, undertook public welfare works such as the construction of bridges, sarais, schools and mosques.

It is also important to note that in those days, pederasty or keeping a catamite was not seen as a punishable offence as it is in today’s world and in ancient Greece and Rome too, it was prevalent as an accepted practice, just as in ancient times, the laws made no provisions to criminalize slavery. And if there were mehfils where perversity and frivolity knew no bounds, there were literary and poetical gatherings too in the residences of nobles. Umara such as Gul Muhammad Ma’aniyab Khan, Shaikh Husain Shirazi, Nawab Asad Yar Khan Insan and Inam-ullah Khan Yaaqin contributed to the development of poetry. Some of the illustrious poets and literati were Mir Taqi Mir, Anand Ram Mukhlis, etc. Shah Abdul Aziz in Malfuzat Shah Abdul Aziz writes that during the rule of Muhammad Shah, there were about 22 learned scholars and mystics in Delhi. Mir Taqi Mir, one of the greatest Urdu poets who later shifted to the court of Nawab Asaf-ud-daulah of Lucknow after Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasion of Delhi in 1748, in his poetry alludes to miseries and sufferings of the people of Delhi. He writes:

“Tears flow like rivers from my weeping eyes,

My heart like Delhi city lies in ruins now.”

         

Muhammad Shah at Jharoka-i-darshan (Viewing Window)

Mughal, Delhi, 1735-40

British Museum Exhibition, IGNCA (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts), New Delhi

Notes:

Marsiya is an elegiac poem, dedicated to Hussain Ibn Ali (the son of Ali and the grandson of Prophet Muhammad) and his comrades of the Karbala to remember his martyrdom who was beheaded at the Battle of Karbala.