Koh-i-Noor, the "Mountain of Light" that Witnessed the Dawn and Twilight of Empires and Dynasties

Such precious gems cannot be obtained by purchases; either they fall to one by the arbitrament of the flashing sword, which is an expression of Divine Will, or else they came through the grace of mighty monarchs.

The quote referenced above, attributed to Humayun (r.1530-1540), the offspring of Babur (founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent), as documented in Tazikirat-ul-Waqiat or Humayun Nama, authored by his rescuer and water bearer, Jauhar Aftabchi, encapsulates the importance of valuable gemstones in the existence of monarchs and their realms. When Humayun lost his kingdom and sought a safe refuge, he arrived in Rajasthan, where he was met by an envoy of Raja Maldeo of Marwar, who requested the sale of Humayun's most precious diamond. Numerous scholars opine that the diamond referred to here is the Koh-i-Noor. In this context, Humayun made such a remark and declined to sell it.

The Persian phrase 'Koh-i-Noor' translates to 'Mountain of Light'. It was Nadir Shah (r. 1736-1747), the Shah (ruler) of Persia (modern-day Iran) who designated the diamond he received from the Mughal Padshah (emperor) as Koh-i-Noor. The Koh-i-Noor transcends being mere a precious stone; it holds utmost historical significance. Sourced from the mines of Golconda, it traversed through numerous nations and continents and graced their royal insignia, signaling power, prestige and pomp. It is not surprising that even today, numerous countries such as India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran assert their claims of ownership over it. At present, it is part of the crown jewels of the United Kingdom and is exhibited to the public at the Tower of London. Its replica is housed in the Natural History Museum, directly opposite the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In the Indian cutting, the Koh-i-Noor had a weight of 191.10 metric carats. In 1851, the Koh-i-Noor was displayed at the inaugural Great Exhibition, the first World Expo, in London, and in 1852, Queen Victoria commissioned the stone to be re-cut, resulting in a total weight reduction to 108.93 metric carats, losing 43 percent of its original weight.

Disputes Concerning Its Identity:

The identity of the Koh-i-Noor is shrouded in mystery. Some historians debate whether the diamond acquired in 1526 CE by Babur (r. 1526-1530) corresponds to the Koh-i-Noor, while others maintain that the Koh-i-Noor was the same as Babur's diamond and the Great Mughal diamond. A separate faction of scholars holds the view that the Koh-i-Noor was identical to the Great Mughal diamond, whereas Babur's diamond was a separate entity.  

In the Baburnama (Translated from the original Turki text of Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur Padshah Ghazi) by Annette Susannah Beveridge, 1921), Babur refers to the brief acquisition of a diamond from his son, Humayun, who presented the precious gem to his father following a victorious military campaign in Gwalior. After the decisive first Battle of Panipat in 1526, where Babur triumphed over Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and the Lodi Dynasty, he tasked Humayun with the conquest of Gwalior which was ruled by Raja Bikramajit. As a sign of his allegiance to Mughal authority, the ruler of Gwalior, who had been subjugated, presented this diamond along with other valuables to Humayun. Nevertheless, despite receiving this highly valuable gift, Babur chose not to retain it for himself but instead returned it to his son. Below is an excerpt from Babur's memoirs:  

They made him a voluntary offering of a mass of jewels and valuables amongst which was the famous diamond which 'Alau'u'd-din must have brought. Its reputation is that every appraiser has estimated its value at two and a half days' food for the whole world. Apparently it weighs 8 misqals.1 Humayun offered it to me when I arrived at Agra ; I just gave it him back.  

Babur states that the diamond was previously brought to Delhi by Alauddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji (r. 1296-1316), the second ruler of the Khilji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, obtained a diamond which is believed to be the Koh-i-Noor from Warangal. In 1308, his military general, Malik Kafur, seized Warangal fort, plundering its riches, which also included the Koh-i-Noor. The subsequent year, he effectively compelled the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Prataprudra, to capitulate and to remit an annual tribute to the reigning ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, thereby diminishing Warangal to the status of a tributary state of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur's linking of the diamond to the one owned by Alauddin Khilji in his memoirs prompted some scholars to assert that Babur's diamond is indeed the Koh-i-Noor. 

When Humayun fled to Persia, he offered several precious gemstones to the reigning ruler of Persia, Shah Tahmasp, including the largest one that he possessed. It is noteworthy that the diamond presented to the Persian ruler is widely regarded as the Koh-i-Noor, while some assert that it is actually Babur's diamond. Others argue that since Babur's diamond is identical to the Koh-i-Noor, it is indeed Babur's diamond, also known as the Koh-i-Noor, that was given to Shah Tahmasp. Nevertheless, in 1547 the Persian Shah dispatched the diamond to his Indian Shia ally and a Deccan ruler, the Sultan of Ahmadnagar as a gift. Khur Shah, the envoy from the Sultanate of Golconda to the Persian court informs that ‘it is notorious that a connoisseur of jewels valued this diamond at two and half days’ subsistence of the whole world. Its weight is 6% misqals [a slightly lower estimate than that given by Babur himself. But in the eyes of his Majesty the Shah, it was not of such great value. At last he sent that diamond along with his envoy Mihtar Jamal, as a present to Nizam Shah [of Ahmadnagar], the ruler of the Deccan.’ It appears that while the ambassador presented the Shah's letter, he did not deliver the diamond and the Shah later attempted to have his missing envoy apprehended, but he was unsuccessful. Afterwards, there's no further documentation of Babur's diamond.

But it is also essential to recognize that Tavernier did not encounter any stone of the weight assigned to Babur's diamond in Aurangzeb's possession, nor can we presume that he learned of any such diamond being owned by Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658), who was then imprisoned, where he held several jewels in his own possession. Had he been aware of such a stone, he would undoubtedly have mentioned it. Another traveler, Francois Bernier, who was at the Mughal court, also fails to mention Babur's diamond. It is plausible, however, that Babur's diamond was actually in Shah Jahan's possession when Tavernier observed Aurangzeb's jewels, and that the latter came into possession of it after Shah Jahan's demise.

Conversely, certain authorities have challenged the belief that connects the Koh-i-Noor to the Great Mughal diamond. Certain academics propose that the Koh-i-Noor may have been sculpted from the Great Mughal diamond. The precise year of the discovery of the Great Mughal diamond remains uncertain. However, from the travel account of Tavernier, we get to know that the Great Mughal diamond was acquired by Mir Jumla as part of diplomacy and presented to Prince Alamgir (who later succeeded Shah Jahan as Aurangzeb in 1658) when Golconda was besieged in 1656 as 'This territory contained mines teeming with diamonds.' Alamgir offered it to his royal father, Shah Jahan circa the year 1656/1657. The huge rough diamond that Jumla offered was 787 carats in weight. The diamond was sourced from the Kollur mine of Golconda. The diamond mine fell under the jurisdiction of the ruler of the Golconda kingdom, significantly contributing to the wealth of the kingdom. Mir Jumla entered the service of Golconda Sultan, and he was made Sar-i-Khail or the governor of Golconda. As the governor, he would keep the largest and most flawless diamonds for his personal collection. But he lost the sultan's royal favor due to circulating rumors regarding his alleged affair with the queen mother. Consequently, he seized the chance provided by a Mughal assault to switch his allegiance to Shah Jahan's imperial service by offering such a valuable gemstone. Since the Mughals were great connoisseurs of gemstones, Mir Jumla's gift was very much appreciated. 

Niccolao Manucci, a Venetian traveler who visited the Mughal court during the reign of Shah Jahan, refers to it as 'a large uncut diamond which weighed 360 carats' in his account Storia do Mogor. A major Mughal Persian court chronicle, Shah Jahan Nama characterizes it as 'an offering of exquisite gems, amongst which was a huge diamond weighing 216 ratis'. Tavernier subsequently labelled this stone as 'that celebrated diamond which generally has been deemed unparalleled in size and beauty'. He also noted that it was presented uncut at 900 ratis, equivalent to 787 metric carats, and that it originated from the Kollur mines. Centuries later, British colonial historiography began to associate this diamond with both Babur's diamond (which had vanished into the Deccan a century prior), and the Koh-i-Noor. Nevertheless, there is no evidence in any primary Mughal texts or contemporary foreign travelogues that Mir Jumla was claiming to restore to the Mughals their most treasured family diamond, which had been missing since the time of Humayun. Considering his desire to gain the imperial favor of his new patron, he would undoubtedly have asserted such a claim had it been accurate. Should we accept Tavernier's assertion that the diamond was given in an uncut state, it follows that it was undoubtedly a new contribution to the Mughal treasury.

Unfortunately, this substantial diamond suffered a significant reduction in weight owing to the poor treatment it received by a Venetian lapidary named Hortensio Borgio, who was commissioned to cut the diamond. Tavernier calls this diamond as the Great Mughal diamond in his account. He had an opportunity to see it on his last visit to Aurangzeb's darbar (imperial court), and he observed, 'The first piece that Akil Khan (Chief Keeper of the King's jewels) placed in my hands was the great diamond, which is rose cut, round and very high on one side. On the lower edge there is a slight crack, and a little flaw in it. Its water is fine, and weighs 286 [metric] carats.' He also noticed that it was badly cut by a Venetian. Francois Bernier, in his travelogue titled Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656-1668, also mentions about this Italian diamond cutter and that his execution was poor, leading to a considerable decrease in the total weight of the diamond. In his writing, he attributes the decrease of the diamond's size to "the wasteful grinding treatment to which it had been subjected by a Venetian named Hortensio Borgio". He elucidates: 

It was the Sieur HORTENSIO BORGIO, a Venetian, who cut it, for which he was badly rewarded, for when it was cut he was reproached with having spoilt the stone, which ought to have retained a greater weight ; and instead of paying him for his work, the King fined him ten thousand rupees, and would have taken more if he had possessed it. If the Sieur HORTENSIO had understood his trade well, he would have been able to take a large piece from this stone without doing injury to the King, and without having had so much trouble grinding it ; but he was not a very accomplished diamond cutter.' 

In the nineteenth century, the Great Mughal diamond was frequently considered to be the Koh-i-Noor; however, contemporary historiography scholars are now persuaded that the Great Mughal is, in fact, the Orlov. 2 This is due to the Orlov's higher, more rounded dome, which resembles Tavernier's depiction of the Great Mughal more closely. Furthermore, both the Orlov and the Great Mughal share the same type of cut and exhibit identical facet patterns. Additionally, none of the other stones observed by Tavernier bear any resemblance to the Koh-i-Noor. It is highly likely that when Tavernier encountered the opportunity to examine the exquisite gemstones in Aurganzeb's possession, he was unable to view those that belonged to Shah Jahan. This is corroborated by the fact that Shah Jahan kept all his valuable gemstones even during his time of dethronement and strict surveillance. Thus, it is reasonably probable that the Koh-i-Noor was in the possession of Shah Jahan's gemstone collection during this period. On the other hand, if the diamond was mounted on the peacock throne, it contradicts the assertion that Shah Jahan held it in his collection. 

Consequently, determining the origin of the Koh-i-Noor proves to be challenging. Numerous theories exist about when and how it entered the Mughal treasury. Various historians, depending on their research studies, associate it with either Babur's diamond, the Great Mughal diamond, or both. Nevertheless, we do not possess definitive evidence to make any authoritative statements regarding this matter.

The Curse:

Another hypothesis surrounding the Koh-i-Noor posits that it is cursed and that only deities and women can wear it without harm. When worn by men, it has the potential to bring considerable misfortune to the wearer. During Nadir Shah's invasion of the Mughal capital, Shahjahanabad (currently referred to as Old Delhi) in 1739, he amassed immense wealth, which encompassed the Koh-i-Noor and Dariya-i-Noor ("Ocean of Light"). 3 But, to amass such a vast fortune, he subjected the Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah and notable members of the nobility to immense humiliation and torture. The invasion resulted in a significant setback to the power and prestige of the Mughal Empire. 

However, Nadir Shah could not retain the Koh-i-Noor for long. The murder of Nadir Shah by his own forces in 1747 led to the succession of his grandson Shah Rukh Mirza to the throne, who was based in Meshed. There, he was taken captive and subjected to harsh torture by Mir Alam Khan who sought in vain to retrieve the Koh-i-Noor from him. In the year 1751, Shah Rukh bestowed it upon Ahmad Shah, the founder of the Durrani dynasty in Kabul, as a reward for his assistance, and it was later inherited by his son Taimur, who moved to Kabul. Subsequently, it was handed down to his descendants, and ultimately, Maharaja Ranjit Singh (r. 1801-1839), the Sikh ruler of the Punjab, obtained it from one of the Durrani heirs. Ranjit Singh often showcased the diamond at state functions throughout his life, and it is noted by various English visitors to Lahore who witnessed it during this period. In 1839, Ranjit Singh passed away, and on his deathbed, he expressed a wish that the Koh-i-Noor, then appraised at one million sterling, should be sent to Jagannath. However, this intention was not fulfilled, and the diamond was kept in the jewel chamber until the dead king's infant son Raja Dilip Singh was acknowledged as his father's successor. Unfortunately, Dulip was neither able to inherit the diamond nor the throne of the Sikh empire; instead, after the Second Anglo-Sikh War and the signing of the Last Treaty of Lahore of 1849, he was assigned the duty of presenting the diamond to Queen Victoria as a symbol of Indian submission to British rule. Thus, the men who attempted to procure and own the Koh-i-Noor truly experienced a great loss. Upon its acquisition by the British monarchy, it was exclusively worn by a queen or queen consort, namely Queen Victoria, Queen Alexandra, Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth. But could it be that the diamond alone is responsible for the unfortunate incidents in the lives of its male owners, or were the political dynamics they were entangled in also significant?  

The Savior:

Undoubtedly, the allure of procuring valuable gemstones drew the interest of numerous invaders; nonetheless, they also offered protection to their owners in times of hardship. However, in the 1540 Battle of Kannauj, following Humayun's defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri, the founder of the Suri dynasty, an Afghan dynasty, Humayun was compelled to go into exile and sought refuge in Persia. In July 1544, while en route to seek refuge at the court of the Safavid emperor Shah Tahmasp, Humayun was rescued from the loss of his valuable jewels by Jauhar. The below-mentioned statement by Humayun also implies that gemstones represented not just the authority and status of a ruler but also served to support him in challenging times and were employed to reciprocate the hospitality of another ruler.

It was customary with his Majesty always to carry his valuable diamonds and rubies in a purse in his pocket. But when he was performing his ablutions, he generally laid them on one side. This time he had done so, and promptly forgot them: it so happened that when the king was gone, and the humble servant Jauhar was about to remount his horse, he saw a green flowered purse lying on the ground, and a pen case by the side of it: he immediately took them up, and as soon as he had overtaken the King, presented them. When his Majesty saw these articles he was amazed and astonished, and said, ‘Oh my boy, you have done me the greatest possible favour; if these had been lost, I should have been subject to the meanness [rezalet] of this Persian monarch: in future please take care of them.’

Indeed, the diamonds proved to be of great assistance to Humayun in tough times. The Persian Shah was very elated to receive the offering of precious gemstones. Jauhar states: 

We remained several days encamped on the hunting grounds, during which time his Majesty ordered his rubies and diamonds to be brought to him; and having selected the largest diamond, placed it in a mother of pearl box; then he added several other diamonds and rubies; and having placed them on a tray, he gave them in the charge of Byram Beg to present to the Persian monarch with the message, ‘that they were brought from Hindustan purposely for his Majesty’. When Shah Tahmasp saw these precious stones he was astonished, and sent for his jewellers to value them. The jewellers declared that they were above all price; on which the Persian signified his acceptance.

Hence, even though the history of the Koh-i-Noor is steeped in mysteries and superstitions regarding its origin, acquisition, and ownership, its relevance has not waned. Its significance continues to resonate strongly with both scholars and everyday individuals.

Notes:  

1. In the Baburnama, Babur assigns a value of 40 ratis to 1 misqal. 

Accordingly, 

                    8 misqals = 320 ratis

Thus, the weight of Babur's diamond was 320 ratis. It is to be kept in mind that the weight of a single rati in relation to misqal may fluctuate as per historical and regional contexts, given that these are conventional units of measurement. During the time of Babur, the value of the misqal, seen as a more definite weight compared to the variable rati, has been examined by Prof. Maskelyne who studied ancient mineralogy and published papers on them. He determines that it was roughly 74 grains troy, and if taken as 73.69 grains troy and multiplied by 8, it would result in a weight that exactly corresponds to that of the Koh-i-Noor when brought to England, viz. 186.06 carats. 

2. The Orlov diamond originates from Golconda and dates back to the 17th century, with a weight of 189.6 carats. As stated in the legend, it was previously an eye of Vishnu statue situated in Srirangam. In the mid-1700s, a French soldier stole it from the temple under the guise of disguise. However, historians contest the factual basis of this account. Eventually, it found its way to Russia, where Count Gregory Orlov, hoping to rekindle his relationship with Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia (r. 1762-1796), paid around 1.4 million Dutch florins to obtain the diamond and presented it to her in 1774. Yet, Catherine did not reignite their romance. But she kept the gift and had it placed at the top of the Russian imperial scepter. It is crafted in Mughal cut, retaining much of its original shape. It is depicted as having the form and size akin to that of a chicken's egg. It is currently included in the Diamond Fund collection of Moscow's Kremlin Armoury. 

3. The Darya-i-Noor is recognized as the largest pink diamond known to mankind, and it was too extracted from the Golconda mines. It is thought to have been one of the eyes of the celebrated Mughal Peacock Throne, which was commissioned by Shah Jahan. This rare pink diamond is presently included in the collection of Iranian National Jewels at the Central Bank of Iran in Tehran. However, despite its color being the rarest to be found in diamonds and its size, it hasn't gained much popularity and is considered as "the Koh-i-Noor's little-known sibling", as Shyam Bhatia, an Indian-born British journalist and writer calls it. Royal Ontario Museum experts have theorized that the Darya-i-Noor represents the major component of the Great Table diamond, which was noted by the French gem trader Jean Baptiste Tavernier in Golconda in 1642. The other section of the Great Table is believed to have been transformed into an oval, pink, 60-carat brilliant called the Noor-al-Ain which translates to "Light of the Eye". The Noor-al-Ain serves as the primary diamond in a tiara bearing the same name, which was designed for the wedding of Iranian Empress Farah Pahlavi to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1958. It is also kept at the National Treasury of Iran in the Central Bank of Iran.

References:

• Primary Sources (European Travelogues and Mughal Persian Texts)

Begley, W. E. & Desai, Z. A. (ed.), The Shah Jahan Nama of 'Inayat Khan: An Abridged History of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, compiled by his royal librarian: the nineteenth-century manuscript translation of A. R. Fuller (British Library, add. 30,777), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990.

Bernier, Francois, Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656-1668, Oxford University Press, London, 1916.

Beveridge, Annette Susannah (tr.), Babur-Nama (Translated from the original Turki Text of Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur Padshah Ghazi), 1921.

Manucci, Niccolao, Storia do Mogor or Mogul India, 1653-1708, William Irvine (tr.), London, 1907.

Stewart, Charles (tr.), Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat or Private Memoirs of the Emperor Humayun, Written in the Persian Language by Jauher, London, 1832. 

Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Travels in India, V. Ball (Translated from the original French edition of 1676), Macmillan & Co., London, 1889.

• Secondary Sources:

Dalrymple, William & Anand, Anita, Koh-i-Noor, The History of the World's Most Infamous Diamond, Bloomsbury, USA, 2017. 

Sarkar, Jadunath, Nadir Shah in India, India Book Exchange, Calcutta, 1925.