Dashavatara of Vishnu: Stories of Assimilation and Dissemination

Anantashayana Vishnu (Vishnu Lounging on the Celestial Serpent Sheshanaga or Ananta)

A Passionate Eye: Textiles, Paintings and Sculptures from the Bharany Donation (2014) [Exhibition], National Museum, New Delhi 

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

Vishnu, as the" Preserver of the Universe" in Hindu mythology, took on the form of the avataras, his earthly incarnations, to aid humanity at times of severe adversity. Though the number and identities of Vishnu's incarnations vary. For example, the Sanskrit text Satvata Samhita one of the earliest agamas or the post-Buddhist scriptures from the Pancharatra agamas, an older collection of Vaishnava texts, enumerates as many as 39 incarnatory forms of Vishnu, including Ananta or Shesha, the Naga who is considered Vishnu's serpent mount on which he rests in eternal yogic sleep in the "Anantashayana" position. Interestingly, some lists incorporate spiritual teachers of the Shramanic movement or heterodox sects that emerged during the Age of the Mahajanapadas after the Vedic Age. They listed Adinatha or Rishabhanatha (the first Tirthankara or supreme spiritual teacher of the Jainas), and the Buddha. It is widely held that Vishnu has ten avataras, or Dashavatara. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Gautama Buddha/Balarama, and Kalkin are typically listed as the incarnations. 

The Vedic literature such as the Satapatha Brahmana and the Taittriya Samhita contain some of the earliest references to the assumption of certain forms by the divinity for the attainment of specific ends. Parjapati, the supreme creator god of the Vedic period, is said to have taken on the forms of a fish (Matsya), a tortoise (Kurma), and a boar (Varaha) on various occasions for the advancement of creation and the well-being of the created. Over the ages, as more deities became connected to Vishnu in one way or another, his persona and those of the gods who were affiliated with him evolved. The Vedic Prajapati was supplanted by Vishnu. Following the establishment of the incarnation doctrine in relation to Vasudeva, Vishnu, and Narayana, all three individuals were physically united with the composite god and recognized as a few of his celestial (divya) incarnations. A. L. Basham in The Wonder That Was India opines that the Buddhist and Jaina teachings of past Buddhas and Tirthankaras, which are undoubtedly older, may have some bearing on the Vaishnavite belief of incarnation.      

• Matsya (The Fish)

The first manifestation of Vishnu is Matsya. The Shatapatha Brahmana describes how a fish protected the first man, Manu, from the great flood. Manu rescued the small fish from the predatory fish, which were trying to eat it, the latter in return forewarned him that a flood would wipe out humanity as a whole. So, he built a boat based on the advice of the fish. He secured this canoe to the fish's horn (who now appeared as a gigantic fish) before the flood arrived, and the fish guided him safely to a resting place, Mount Hemavat. The Vedic text states that it was Prajapati who took on the form of the divine fish. Later, in the great epic of the Mahabharata, the fish is said to be the incarnation of Brahma. The epic equates the Vedic god, Prajapati with Brahma and accordingly, Prajapati became Brahma. While in the Puranas the story underwent further changes and now Brahma is replaced with Vishnu.      

There are similar stories about the flood in other civilizations and religions. Genesis, the first book of both the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament, mentions the story of Noah's Ark and the Great Flood as per which God sends a catastrophic flood as retribution for humanity's transgressions. He gives one man, Noah, instructions to construct a massive ship in order to save two of every animal on the earth. After 150 days of sailing through floodwaters, Noah's Ark finally rests atop a mountain in the region of Ararat (modern-day Turkey) where the water retreats and the earth's life cycle restarts. However, the Epic of Gilgamesh tells a similar deluge tale much earlier than the Genesis flood narrative. It is said that Gilgamesh, the well-known Mesopotamian hero who was possibly a Sumerian ruler, was two thirds god and one third man. Similar to Noah, he constructs a massive boat to save all the animals from a massive flood. 

Fresco Painting of Dashavatara 

Raja Mahal, Orccha Fort, Niwari District, Madhya Pradesh

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

The Matsya Avatar is in the middle.

• Kurma (The Tortoise)

The second avatar was Kurma the tortoise, who carried Mount Mandara on his back as the ocean was churning (samudra manthan). The ambrosia or amrita, that enabled the gods to maintain their youth, was among the many divine treasures destroyed in the great flood. Vishnu as Kurma dove to the depths of the cosmic ocean. The gods positioned Mount Mandara on his back, churned the seas, and twirled the mountain by twisting the celestial snake Vasuki around it. The amrita and other jewels, including the goddess Lakshmi, emerged from the churning of the ocean or the samudra manthan. 

• Varaha (The Boar)

The worship of the heavenly boar was merged with that of Vishnu by the Gupta era. The earth was saved by Varaha, the boar. The narrative describes how Hiranyaksha, a demon had taken control of the earth after it was lost under floods. Vishnu, then taking the form of a giant boar, dove into the waves and successfully found the earth by its smell (boars are believed to possess the best sense of smell than any creature on earth). Using his tusks, he lifted the earth out of the ocean and slew the demon that had taken control of it. The iconography associated with this episode is often depicted with Bhudevi or the goddess of the earth as being carried by a giant with a boar's head, representing Vishnu as Varaha.  

Varaha in an Anthropomorphic Form Lifting Bhudevi (Goddess Earth), Government Museum, Bengaluru

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

In the image above, the idol of Bhudevi is missing its head, which seems to be broken.

Varaha Temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

Note: This sandstone monolithic sculpture is housed in a small open temple supported by fourteen pillars located in front of the Lakshmana Temple. Its body is covered in several representations of various gods, goddesses, such as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Sarasvati, and Ganga and demi-gods such as Nagas, Dikpalas (guardians of the cardinal directions), and Gandharvas. However, the depiction of the goddess earth, Prithvi or Bhudevi, whom Varaha had raised from the ocean with his left tooth, cannot be seen as it is damaged.

Varaha, Ganga Government Museum, Bikaner, Rajasthan

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

• Narasimha (The Man-Lion)

Vishnu's fourth avatar is said to be Narasimha. The term Narasimha is a compound word, and it is derived from two Sanskrit words: nara (Man) and simha (Lion). He vanquished Hiranyakashyipu, the formidable demon who was a manifestation of Ravana. The devil had convinced Brahma to grant him the authority to overthrow Indra, the storm god, and banish the gods of the sky. Then the devil crowned himself as the ruler of the universe. Prahlada, the son of Hiranyakashyipu, was a follower of Vishnu. Hiranyakashipu was so incensed about this that he subjected his little son to torture in an attempt to turn him away from worship. Prahlada was not persuaded. Then Hiranyakashyipu gave the order to execute Prahlada, but the little boy was protected from harm by everything. In the end, Hiranyakashyipu became so enraged that he attacked a pillar, demanding to know why Vishnu was not inside the pillar if he was so significant and all-pervasive. The pillar instantly gave way, and Vishnu appeared at dusk, when it was neither day nor night as a creature who was neither man nor lion but a composite being with the body of a man and the head and claws of a lion, Narasimha and attacked Hiranyakashyipu and killed him. In this avatara, he saved his ardent devotee, Prahlada who took over his father's reign. 

Narasimha, Government Museum, Bengaluru

Source: Dr. Richa Singh 

• Vamana (The Dwarf)

The fifth avatara to arrive to save the earth from the demon king, Bali or Mahabali was a Brahmin dwarf named Vamana. When Vishnu materialized as a dwarf in front of Mahabali, who was threatening the gods with his superhuman strength and took control over the world, he begged the demon king—who was renowned for his generosity and benevolence—for a boon, asking for as much territory as he could cover in three strides. Vamana became a giant upon receiving the boon, covering the earth, heaven, and the middle air in two steps. With nowhere else to go, the demon king bowed his head and advised Vamana to walk on it for the third step that was promised. Pleased with the king, the Lord permitted Mahabali to return from patala to his realm that is present-day Kerala once a year and then sent the demon down to patalalok, the netherworld. To welcome Mahabali every year, the harvest festivals, Onam (in Kerala) and Balipratipada are celebrated. Mahabali's eldest son Ban or Banasur like his father too became a power ruler, ruling from modern-day central Assam.  

Vamana Avatara and The Three Steps 

Chhinnamastika Temple Complex, Rajrappa, Ramgarh District, Jharkhand

Source: Dr. Richa Singh

Vamana's three legs in the image symbolize his three steps. He appears to be covering heaven and atmosphere with one leg facing the sky, and the earth with the other leg on the bhumi, or land. In his third stride, he is depicted as applying his foot pressure on Mahabali, a demon king's head to send him to patalalok. Thus, Vishnu is commonly referred to as Trivikrama, or "God of the Three Strides," after he transforms himself from Vamana into a giant and takes the three gigantic steps.

• Parshurama

Parashurama was the sixth avatara. The name means Rama with an axe. Parshurama's father had ordered him to decapitate his mother for immoral desires. However, Parashurama requested that his mother return to life when his father granted him a wish. Later, Parshurama slaughtered the entire kshastriya, or warrior caste, to whom King Kartavirya belonged after the king insulted his father. In order to create a new, purer warrior caste, he then gave the brahmans the order to sleep with the kshatriya men's widows. He is thought to be one of the Chiranjivis, or Immortals, who will manifest as the guru (teacher) of Vishnu's tenth and last incarnation, Kalki or Kalkin, at the conclusion of the Kali Yuga. It is believed that Rama, Vamana, and Parashurama existed during the Treta Yuga. The Satya (or Krita) Yuga, the Treta Yuga, the Dwapara Yuga, and the Kali Yuga are the four Yugas (great ages) in Hinduism.  

• Rama

The Hindu god's seventh incarnation is the warrior prince, Rama, the royal son of King Dashratha of Ayodhya. Rama first appeared as a principal character in one of the major Indian epics of India, the Ramayana. During the Gupta period, he was too included into the Vaishnavite pantheon and became synonymous with Vishnu. He delivers the world from the tyranny of Lankapati or the demon king of Lanka, Ravana. Despite the belief that he was an earlier incarnation than Krishna, his cult emerged later and eventually gained significance.    

Rama Darbar/ Royal Court

20th Century, Jammu School of Painting

Dogra Art Museum, Mubarak Mandi Complex, Jammu

Source: Dr Richa Singh

Note: The Jammu school of painting is a branch of the Pahari school that developed in the 17th century, and it has the influence of Mughal miniature paintings as seen in the above image. The characters of the Ramayana such as Rama, Sita, Hanuman and his brothers, Bharata, Lakshmana, and Shatrughana are shown dressed up in Mughal style of clothing, adorned with ornaments such as kalgi and the way Sita is clutching the lotus flower is evocative of Mughal rulers and princes holding flowers or jewels in Mughal miniatures. Another noteworthy aspect of Mughal miniature paintings is the employment of hashiya (border designing), which is also present in this example of Jammu school, underlining the fact that there has been recurring examples of influences, adaptations and assimilations. 

• Krishna

The eighth manifestation of Vishnu is Krishna. By the Gupta era, Krishna, a herdsman-like god known for playing the flute in the pasture and of unknown origin, had come to be recognized as a manifestation of Vishnu. He belonged to the Yadava tribe. As per the legend, Kansa, the king of Mathura and Krishna's maternal uncle, was told by an oracle that the eighth son of Devaki (Kansa's sister) and Vasudev would kill him. He resolved to kill Krishna before his birth after learning this. But he was saved by secretly sending him away to a cowherd, Nanda and his wife, Yashoda at Gokul as soon as he was born at Mathura. The couple raised him. But when he entered his adulthood, Kansa learned of his real identity and his incredible feats and once again became determined to get rid of him. He declared a wrestling match and challenged all the local young men to test their mettle against the champions of his court. Krishna and Balarama, eager to accept the challenge, went to the city. But when it came time for them to fight, King Kansa let a wild elephant into the ring. The elephant lunged at the two boys, but Krishna just sprang on its back, wrapped his arms around its neck, and killed it with a chokehold. The king then sent his two best wrestlers into the ring, and they were defeated by the brothers. Eventually, Kansa was killed by Krishna. He is mentioned in the Mahabharata and is regarded as the great preacher of the great sermon of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, one of the Pandava brothers in the epic. Puranic sources state that Krishna's demise signaled the end of the Dvapara Yuga and the beginning of the Kali Yuga. 

Malla-Yudha (Wrestling) Between Krishna and a Wrestler of King Kansa at Mathura

Bengaluru Palace, Bengaluru

Photo taken by Dr. Richa Singh

The tale of Krishna's killing at the hands of Jara, a hunter who mistook him for a deer, has echoes of Achilles's in Homer's Iliad. Achilles was mortally wounded by an arrow that Paris shot and lodged in his tender heel. Jara also fatally damaged Krishna's foot. Furthermore, Mayon, "the Black One," who is referenced in Tamil Sangam literature (c. 200 BCE to 500 CE), is comparable to the pastoral Krishna. One of the five tinais, or eco-zones, of ancient Tamilakam, was the mullai, or pastures and woodlands, where the local deity Mayon was worshipped. Mullai was inhabited by cowherds who practiced animal husbandry and shifting cultivation.    

• Buddha

The Agni Purana states that Vishnu was born as the Buddha in order to deal with daityas (one of the asura or demon clans) who were consistently defeating the devas (a divine being) However, there has been claims that it is not Gautama Buddha, but Sugata Buddha while some assert that the buddha as an avatara is Adibuddha (Primordial Buddha) who is considered as one of Vishnu's incarnations. This notion of the Buddha as Vishnu's ninth avatara is inconsistent. Regional differences exist about the 9th Vishnu incarnation. For instance, Balarama, Krishna's half-brother is frequently referred to as the ninth avatara in North India. As the ninth avatara in Odisha, Lord Jagannath replaces Buddha. Lord Vithoba in Maharashtra is seen as the avatara of Vishnu that comes after Krishna. The Buddha is nevertheless depicted in certain forms of Dashavatara as Vishnu's ninth avatara, even though attempts to incorporate the Buddha would be in direct opposition to the Puranic corpus, which derives its authority, and sanctity from the Vedas. And the Buddha is known to be part of the Shramanic movement which defied the authority of the Vedas. The fact that Vishnu is said to have repeatedly assumed human form while the Buddha is thought to have been fully freed from the cycle of death and rebirth presents another inherent contradiction about the Buddha and Vishnu's incarnations. The notion that Vishnu undergoes incarnations conflicts with the notion that the Buddha achieved mahaparinirvana.   

Nevertheless, it seems that with the intention of assimilating Buddhist ideas within the Brahmanical fold, Vaishnavism incorporated the Buddha into its mythology through the Vaishnava Puranas, where the Buddha is accepted as Vishnu's ninth avatara. A highly revered Vaishnava text, the Vishnu Purana, is where the Buddha first appeared as a manifestation of Vishnu. However, the Pancharatra agamas does not mention the Buddha as a Vishnu avatara. Instead, Balarama is accepted as the 9th incarnation.

• Kalki

Kalki, the last avatara, is still to come. At the end of the current era, or Kaliyuga, he will make his appearance to usher in a new one. It is said that he will manifest as a man with a horse's head or as a warrior riding a white horse. The wicked will be punished and destroyed by Kalki, while the good will be rewarded and everything will once again become a part of the "Absolute" until the cycle of creation repeats itself. This came into the Vaishnavite mythology considerably later and is not seen in much literature or imagery. Buddhism, which predicted the arrival of Maitreya Buddha long before the Vaishnavites created the Kalki, may have served as the primary source of inspiration for this.  

Thus, Hinduism's belief in the cyclical nature of existence and the never-ending conflict between good and evil is profoundly demonstrated by the Dashavatara, or the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. It also draws our attention to the process of the evolution of Vaishnavism in India and the gradual absorption of various local beliefs and deities such as Narayana and Vusudeva into the cult of Vaishnavism along with the incorporation of Shramanic or heterodox spiritual leaders with the motive of assimilating them into puranic Hinduism and probably borrowing some of the Buddhist ideas such as the concept of Kalki from the Buddhist concept of Maitrya bodhisattva or the Future Buddha. It helps us to understand several parallels between the narratives from various civilizations and religions and provides an insight into the progressive dissemination of the Vaishnava cult through the methods of adaptation and assimilation.  

Notes: 

Agama: The term Agama means tradition. Although they are not part of the Vedas, and do not derive their authority directly from them, yet they incorporate Vedic mantras or chants and preserve a link with the Vedic traditions. Agamas are temple scriptures that describe how temples should be constructed and how deities should be enshrined and worshipped using water, flowers, and incense whereas in Nigama texts (which are synonymous with Vedic literature) formless deities are prayed to with the means of fire (Agni) by performing yagna (a Vedic way for making offerings to gods, involving Vedic rites). Because during the Vedic period, temple construction was not in practice and the emphasis of the Vedic people was not so much on the corporeal manifestations of the divinities as it was on nature and abstract concepts, therefore, unlike the Agama texts, Nigamas are not temple scriptures. Another important distinction between Nigamas and Agamas is Nigamas were written before the advent of Buddhism whereas Agamas are post-Buddhist. Agamas gained popularity in South India, and they were written between the fifth and fifteenth centuries CE.